The main issue of monotheism is how divine unity is compatible with the plurality of attributes. Hence, the question arises whether God has attributes. If God does not have attributes, then what are the revelatory attributes with which He describes Himself? If God has attributes, what is the nature of these attributes and their relation to His essence? How can one speak of the essence, attributes, and divine realm? The apophatic and analogical theologies have been formed in response to these questions, and each has led to some controversies that they have not been able to solve. Although it is possible that the separation of the truth and the metaphor according to the Muʿtazilites and in a few cases according to the Ashʿarites, can act as a temporary solution, it does not seem to be a defensible solution and requires another explanation. This descriptive-analytical study tries to express the metaphysical approach of Muʿtazilites and Ashʿarites about attributes in terms of three issues: Are attributes ontological or semantic? Are they real meanings or names and sayings? Are they divine or human? This research aims to propose a better solution by providing a new reading of Muʿtazilite approach based on the aforementioned metaphysical one. In short, although the Ashʿarites consider attributes to be entities with real and pre-linguistic meanings which God describes Himself with those, and these attributes have reached humans exclusively through revelation, investigating the Muʿtazilite approach depicts that the attributes are semantic matters which are derived from human-linguistic names and are attributed to God by humans through the reason.

There is no doubt that the Abbasid era stands out as one of the most remarkable and illustrious periods in Islamic civilization. This distinction can be attributed to various factors, with the Muʿtazilite school of thought playing a pivotal role by promoting rationalism in scholarly discourse. Utilizing the descriptive-analytic approach, this article explores the relationship between the Muʿtazilites and the Abbasid government, with a specific focus on the impact of Muʿtazilite theologians within the Abbasid court and the patronage they received from the caliphs' political authority. Additionally, we delve into the origins of Muʿtazilite rationalism and examine the various factors that contributed to the significant influence of the Muʿtazilites in fostering the growth and development of Islamic civilization during the Abbasid era. The Muʿtazilites made significant contributions in several areas, including scholarly debates, engaging with non-Muslim scholars, establishing scholarly and cultural centers, and promoting the role of reason in Islamic theology. These endeavors played a crucial role in promoting argumentative reason within the Islamic community during the Abbasid era. As a result, the civilization thrived and flourished through rationalism.

Sayyid Murtadhā and al-Shaykh al-Mufid represent two lines of thought in the Baghdad theological school. The cultural and scientific context of that era coincided with the influential and remarkable presence of the Muʿ tazilite school of thought; an era in which the Imamiyyah had recently gone through the silent period of theology and faced a theological movement that dominated the theological literature and its methodology in its entirety. It was in this context that Sayyid Murtadhā and his students theorized about the nature of God’ s Will. Moving on from what their Imamiyyah predecessors in the Kufa school held, to some extent they approximated the Muʿ tazilite conception of God’ s Will. For the Kufa school, God’ s Will was temporally originated(hā dith), which was neither in His essence nor detached from It; and in al-Mufid’ s view, It was the object itself (nafs al-fiʿ l) or, in other words, the external created object. During Sayyid Murtadhā ’ s time and after him, however, despite remaining temporally originated and not being reduced to knowledge(ʿ ilm) and motivation(da’ i), ontologically speaking, God's Will remained similar to the Basrian Muʿ tazilite common conception as "temporally originated not in a place"(hā dith lā fi mahall). Sayyid Murtadhā ’ s line of thought in Baghdad strengthens and encompasses this idea.

Early Muʿtazilite Qurʾānic exegeses form an important part of the classical exegetical heritage. Although influential on subsequent commentaries, most of these works have been lost, with few extant manuscripts. Prominent Muʿtazilite exegetes of the late 4th century AH include Abd al-Raḥmān ibn Kaysān al-Aṣamm, Abū Ali al-Jubbāʾī, Abū Muslim al-Iṣfahānī, Abū al-Qāsim al-Balkhī, and Abū al-Ḥasan al-Rummānī, whose exegetical views survive only in fragments preserved by later scholars. Meanwhile, a recently accessible manuscript of an unknown early commentary, likely of Iranian provenance and reflecting a distinctly Muʿtazilite approach, offers valuable new material. Housed in the National Library of Israel (Ms. Yah. Ar. 374), this unexplored text represents a significant document for the history of Muʿtazilite exegesis. The author is unlikely to be among the prominent figures mentioned above, but perhaps a lesser-known Muʿtazilite from Baghdad or Rayy, or possibly a Hanafi Muʿtazilite from 5th or 6th- century AH Khurasan or Transoxiana. This article presents an edition of the surviving text and explores its significance within the history of Muʿtazilite exegesis, analyzing its unique features and contribution.

One of the most important and controversial questions in Arabic grammar is Tazmin,for which there is no equivalent in English. It happens when a verb takes a preposition which seems unusual in general prepositional phrases. This style of t..pression, considered as a deviation from the norms in ordinary usage of the language, enables us to combinethe meaning of the two words in that of a single one. The major challenge is how to adjust the preposition to the verb. Here one can distinguish two main trends. The first follows the Basrian School, which emphasizes the paraphrasing of verbs. The second trend is influenced by Kufian School, which focuses on the replacement of prepositions. The writers of the present I article define this grammatical structure by representing examples from theverses of the Holy Qur"an and discuss it from syntactic and rhetorical points of view.

This article aims to provide an overview of the perspectives held by non-Shiite theological and jurisprudential sects regarding the concept of the "saved sect" (al-firqat al-nājiya), as mentioned in the hadith concerning the division of seventy-two sects. We argue that while Sunni sects, in contrast to Shias, maintain that they collectively constitute a single sect, their various subgroups, such as the People of Hadith (ahl al-ḥadīth), People of Opinion (ahl al-raʾy), Muʿtazilites, Ashʿarites, Māturidis, and jurisprudential schools, perceive themselves as the "saved sect," while considering other sects as being “perished (hālika) sects.” Furthermore, we explore the varying interpretations among Sunni scholars regarding the concept of "perish" (halāka) mentioned in the hadith of the "saved sect." These interpretations encompass possibilities such as disbelief or eternal confinement in hell.

Considering the fundamental role of the intellectual foundations of every theologian in his opinions and theological thoughts, this article aims to examine the epistemological and methodological foundations of two influential theologians in the history of Islamic theology belonging to the two major theological schools, the Shiites (Imamīyyah) and the Muʿtazilites. This research has been done through the descriptive-analytical method, using library resources.  By analyzing the works and ideas of two thinkers, the researchers concluded that both theologians regard the knowledge of God as the primary obligation for every intellectually mature human being. This knowledge is intellectual and even pre-religious in nature. Furthermore, practical reason demands that every individual recognize the true Creator of themselves and the world. Morally, they are also bound to express gratitude to their benefactor.. Reason is not only the foundation of all religious knowledge but one must also seek guidance from the illuminating light of reason in understanding religion, for which the Book and tradition are the most important sources. These two thinkers align in their rational and narrative approaches to understanding religion; however, they differ regarding the function of reason, the relationship between reason and transmitted knowledge (naql), and specific instances within tradition, all of which are examined in this article.

Following the demise of Prophet Muhammad (s), disagreements arose among Muslim scholars regarding crucial matters such as the caliphate, and fundamental beliefs including divine attributes, fate (qaḍāʾ) and predestination (qadar), the nature of good and evil, predetermination (jabr), and free will. These disputes gave rise to various sects and denominations within Islam. Consequently, the field of kalām or theology emerged, encompassing diverse theological sects such as the Muʿtazilites, Ashʿarites, Shias, and Ismāʿilis, as well as different jurisprudential schools such as the Shāfiʿiyya, Mālikiyya, Ḥanbaliyya, Ḥanafiyya, and Shiism. These theological disagreements constitute a significant portion of Islamic history over the course of centuries. Prominent Persian poets often aligned themselves with specific theological and jurisprudential schools of thought, which influenced their poetic expressions. They openly expressed their affirmations or rejections of various theological beliefs within their poems, giving rise to what could be called the "denominational discourse" within Persian poetry. To fully grasp the meaning and significance of these poems, it is essential to possess a comprehensive understanding of the beliefs and ideologies they embraced. This article focuses on examining three prominent theological schools present in Islamic civilization: Shiism, Muʿtazilism, and Ashʿarism. Furthermore, we provide a brief overview of the jurisprudential beliefs held by various poets. Subsequently, we present selected samples of poetry composed by renowned poets that reflect their theological perspectives.